To what extent, if any, is ethnicity or being an Indigenous person a discriminating factor in accessing health care in Australia?

Introduction

A number of issues influence the access to quality health care among the Indigenous people in Australia. Inequalities with regards to the access of health care as well as service utilization among the Indigenous Australian people tend to quantify the scope of the disparities along with health care access needed by this group.

Ethnicity in Australia is mainly related to the dominance of the white Anglo-Australians with additional people of colour or various linguistic groups. It is therefore entrenched in the dominant culture and is evident in lower levels education accomplishments, low incomes, high unemployment levels, deprived access to goods and services, political dispowerment in addition to uneven population health (Lupton et.al.,1995).

Psychosocial effects of racism, homophobia and marginalization take account of shame, seclusion, lack of self worth, emotional disorders and havoc, likely refusal by family and friends, homelessness and increased risk of acquiring Hiv/Aids. Ethnicity acts as an underlying cause to such disparities towards their accessing of quality health care in addition to contributing to the major unnecessary ill health.

The assessment of the Indigenous peoples’ health in Australia assumes two major forms. A concern with the prevalence of the diseases affecting them and the problem- centered, with focus on the problems that the indigenous people experience due to the fact that they come from different cultural backgrounds. The particular concern here lies on their interaction with the health system (Lupton et.al., 1995). Taken as a whole, Australians benefit from one of the highest life expectancies in the world as suggested by the world health organization(WHO 2003).On the other hand ,the health and social care of indigenous and immigrants predominantly those of culturally and linguistically varied backgrounds and refugee, leaves a lot to be desired. The health status of the Indigenous Australian population is much worse as compared to those of non-indigenous Australian population. The estimated life expectancy on birth for the Indigenous Australians is about 15-20 years less for both men and women as compared to the national mean (Papadopoulos, 2006).

As a result of this, Indigenous Australians are more prone to cases of disability as well as considerably lower quality of life, a consequence of the poor health they are subjected to. They have also shorter life expectancies as compared to the other Australian population. These patterns are replicated in the Australian data on mortality rates, life expectancy rates, birth weights as well as hospitalization rates.

Health care process entails a lot. It involves the social, environmental as well as the political influences that shape individuals, groups as well as various populations to take charge thus improving their health. Health promotions cover quite a number of disciplines that includes public health, education, psychology, sociology among others (White, 2009).

The health status of the Indigenous Australians has always been below those of the non-Indigenous. This means their health conditions has been poorer compared to other Australians with statistics showing their life expectancy being about 18-19 years less. Their exclusion from health care and olden day’s inappropriate practices may still be affecting their attitudes even today. This was because the mainstream healthcare showed little understanding of their cultural differences. Their level of trauma experienced therefore increased over time due the scale whereby every community became affected in much the same way. This proceeded on over the subsequent generation (Kevin, 2006).

The physical as well as the social environments in which the Indigenous Australians have been subjected to due to their background has therefore impinged on their opportunities to live healthy lives comparatively free of severe illness. Many Indigenous Australians presently live under conditions of apparent social as well as economic disadvantage, which is a contributory factor to their poor health in a number of groups of Indigenous Australians. The ethnic-based discrimination is bad for the health of the Indigenous Australians in a number of ways such as;

Restricting access to various resources needed for their health such as employment, good housing and education.

Affecting individuals who eventually turn to drugs in order to manage their stress therefore damaging their health (e.g., smoking and alcohol use).

Ethnical discrimination results in negative emotions for instance stress and fear, that have possible negative results on their mental health, immune as well as cardiovascular systems.

internalization of negative assessments as well as stereotypes impacts on their psychological health as well as self-worth, consecutively increasing problems related to depression, alcohol use and psychological stress

ethnical discrimination may be evident in violence related to both physical as well as mental health end results

There is therefore a clear link between ethnical discrimination to depression and anxiety as the key contributors to the diseases burden among the Indigenous Australian. There are also apparent links between ethnicity and other mental health as well as behaviour problems with rising proofs of a link with poor physical health, such as cases of diabetes, obesity problems as well as high blood pressure. Many researchers have confirmed the link noted among various men as well and women, across different age cohorts and across different ethnical groups (keleher, 2006).

The link in this case, remains as one of the factors used to explain the poor mental health outcomes found among the Indigenous Australians, who are in most cases socially as well as economically disadvantaged. Both institutional and interpersonal forms of ethnic based discrimination play a significant contribution to poor health among the Indigenous Australians. Proofs have been analytically collected on how the pathway through communal, political, environmental as well as the economical determinants decode into ill health, and the way in which social environments as well as setting where people live does not only influence how they act, but also have a undeviating impact on their health(Keleher et.al.,2006).

Social Exclusion

Ethnicity coming in a way of social isolation creates depression and costs lives. The process of social isolation with regards to ethnicity and the scope of relative deprivation within the Australian society have had a great impact on the health of the Indigenous Australians at times leading to premature deaths. The risks to their health come not only as a result of material deprivation, but also through the social in addition to psychological problems associated with poverty as well as marginalization. Increasing income disparity in Australia and more so among the disadvantaged group like the Indigenous Australians make this a rising problem (Keleher et.al, 2006).

The consequences of this is that, the Indigenous Australians, subjected to social isolation and social exclusion become subject to deteriorating levels of personal control and high levels of loneliness and discontent. They therefore reveal an increased need to access mental health services and go through high stress levels as well as high mortality rates for all causes of death. They suffer more from depression, have no t benefit of wellbeing and are at high risk of pregnancy complications in the case of pregnant women.

Social exclusion through ethnicity comes as a result of marginality and inequity on the peoples’ opportunities to contribute to the society and lowers down their access to acquire opportunities so as to contribute to the society. These confine their access to various opportunities towards economic as well as social participation with vast economic and social penalties for those already living on very low incomes. Populations most commonly well-known as mainly at risk due to social exclusion entail those with inadequate job opportunities, predominantly black and the ethnic marginal groups.

Unemployment, Employment and Working Conditions

Ethnicity acts as a go-between employment opportunity. Unemployment as a result of ethnicity puts the Indigenous Australians’ health at risk with the risk of poor health being at a high level in regions where the unemployment level is more widespread. The health impacts as a result of unemployment levels of the Indigenous Australians are linked to the psychological consequences and the accompanying financial problems. Low pay, harsh as well as stressful work subjected to the Indigenous Australians has a great impact on their general health (Papadopoulos, 2006).

Negative stress at their places of work enhances the risk of ill health. However, it is not just the stress and the demanding work that is the main problem. It is the stress that come out in the form of having very little control and authority with regards to work affairs. All these are a consequences brought by ethnicity placed upon them as a disadvantaged group. Lack of appreciation as well as reward may also be another health burden. The reward or effort imbalance discriminating against them in ethnicity background acts as a significant determinant of their health. Stress comes when people sense their positions are under threat, not just being unemployed and this poses a significant impact on their health.

Early Life Connectedness to Ethnicity

Evidences with regards to the effects of past experiences as also had a significant impact on the health of the Indigenous Australians. Keleher (2006) says that this has been able to spark a rising consensus on the significance of early child growth as an influential health determinant in its own right. The impacts of the past physical as well as social environment on childhood growth last his or her whole life.

Lack of emotional support during early childhood leads to poor physical health as well as reducing the physical and emotional performance in adulthood. Poor social as well as economic situations thereafter present a major challenge to a child’s development and health condition. Low socio-economic status among the Indigenous Australians has been known to be related to development impediment, low school attainments and employment prospects, behavior problems, rising cases of persistent illness and dental facts.

Their health problems have therefore been attributed to a legacy of long time practices such as being thrown away from their lands, family separation, cultural dislocation as well as discrimination. Surveys conducted in 1994 by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) have shown that children who were forcibly removed from their families in childhood are twice as likely to assess their health status as poor as compared to those who were not removed.

The surveys also document the devastating impacts of the removal of both children of the Indigenous Australians from their families and the general impacts of fragmentation on the families today. Early years of an individuals’ life is therefore foundational to their health through their lives (Keleher, 2006).

Social Connectedness

Ethnicity has also impacted on the social connection of the Indigenous Australians. Friendship, healthy social relations as well as supportive networks are crucial to enhancing individuals’ health. Being part of a social responsibility makes individuals believe they are cared for as well as being valued. This translates to improved psychological health as well as enhanced physical health (Lupton, 1995).

Social capital which has been lacking in the case of the Indigenous Australians due to ethnical discrimination is linked social connectedness. Ethnical discrimination has for a long time denied this group the benefits that come along with social connectedness. This has led to lack of emotional support leading to poor psychological health among most Indigenous Australians (Keleher, 2006).

Conclusion

It is much difficult to separate the impacts of ethnicity towards the access of health care services on the general health of the Indigenous Australian population. Socio-economic aspects for instance housing, income and employment levels and the provision of non- healthcare government provisions such as hygienic water, nutrition, education and public housing each contribute to overall health outcomes.

The outcomes and efficiency of health care services are also influenced by population aspects different from the governments’ control, consisting of geographic distribution, ethnicity profiles, and socio-economic status (Fowler et.al., 2010).

Reference

Fowler, C.eta l( 2010). Addressing the Gap in Indigenous Health: Government Intervention or Community Governance. A qualitative review. The International Journal of Health Sociology. Retrieved on September 13 from

< HYPERLINK “http://hsr.e-contentmanagement.com/archives/vol/19/issue/1/article/3564/addressing-the-gap-in-indigenous-health” http://hsr.e-contentmanagement.com/archives/vol/19/issue/1/article/3564/addressing-the-gap-in-indigenous-health>

Keleher, H & St. John, W.(2006).Community Nursing Practice: Theory, Skills and Issues. Allen & Unwin.

Lupton, G.M& Najman, M. (1995). Sociology of Health and Illness. Palgrave Macmillan Australia.

Papadopoulos, I.( 2006). Transcultural Health and Social Care: Development of Culturally Competent Practitioners. Elsevier Health Sciences.

White, K. (2009). An Introduction to the Sociology of Health and Illness. SAGE :Publications Ltd.

To what extent, if any, is ethnicity or being an Indigenous person a discriminating factor in accessing health care in Australia?

Introduction

A number of issues influence the access to quality health care among the Indigenous people in Australia. Inequalities with regards to the access of health care as well as service utilization among the Indigenous Australian people tend to quantify the scope of the disparities along with health care access needed by this group.

Ethnicity in Australia is mainly related to the dominance of the white Anglo-Australians with additional people of colour or various linguistic groups. It is therefore entrenched in the dominant culture and is evident in lower levels education accomplishments, low incomes, high unemployment levels, deprived access to goods and services, political dispowerment in addition to uneven population health (Lupton et.al.,1995).

Psychosocial effects of racism, homophobia and marginalization take account of shame, seclusion, lack of self worth, emotional disorders and havoc, likely refusal by family and friends, homelessness and increased risk of acquiring Hiv/Aids. Ethnicity acts as an underlying cause to such disparities towards their accessing of quality health care in addition to contributing to the major unnecessary ill health.

The assessment of the Indigenous peoples’ health in Australia assumes two major forms. A concern with the prevalence of the diseases affecting them and the problem- centered, with focus on the problems that the indigenous people experience due to the fact that they come from different cultural backgrounds. The particular concern here lies on their interaction with the health system (Lupton et.al., 1995). Taken as a whole, Australians benefit from one of the highest life expectancies in the world as suggested by the world health organization(WHO 2003).On the other hand ,the health and social care of indigenous and immigrants predominantly those of culturally and linguistically varied backgrounds and refugee, leaves a lot to be desired. The health status of the Indigenous Australian population is much worse as compared to those of non-indigenous Australian population. The estimated life expectancy on birth for the Indigenous Australians is about 15-20 years less for both men and women as compared to the national mean (Papadopoulos, 2006).

As a result of this, Indigenous Australians are more prone to cases of disability as well as considerably lower quality of life, a consequence of the poor health they are subjected to. They have also shorter life expectancies as compared to the other Australian population. These patterns are replicated in the Australian data on mortality rates, life expectancy rates, birth weights as well as hospitalization rates.

Health care process entails a lot. It involves the social, environmental as well as the political influences that shape individuals, groups as well as various populations to take charge thus improving their health. Health promotions cover quite a number of disciplines that includes public health, education, psychology, sociology among others (White, 2009).

The health status of the Indigenous Australians has always been below those of the non-Indigenous. This means their health conditions has been poorer compared to other Australians with statistics showing their life expectancy being about 18-19 years less. Their exclusion from health care and olden day’s inappropriate practices may still be affecting their attitudes even today. This was because the mainstream healthcare showed little understanding of their cultural differences. Their level of trauma experienced therefore increased over time due the scale whereby every community became affected in much the same way. This proceeded on over the subsequent generation (Kevin, 2006).

The physical as well as the social environments in which the Indigenous Australians have been subjected to due to their background has therefore impinged on their opportunities to live healthy lives comparatively free of severe illness. Many Indigenous Australians presently live under conditions of apparent social as well as economic disadvantage, which is a contributory factor to their poor health in a number of groups of Indigenous Australians. The ethnic-based discrimination is bad for the health of the Indigenous Australians in a number of ways such as;

Restricting access to various resources needed for their health such as employment, good housing and education.

Affecting individuals who eventually turn to drugs in order to manage their stress therefore damaging their health (e.g., smoking and alcohol use).

Ethnical discrimination results in negative emotions for instance stress and fear, that have possible negative results on their mental health, immune as well as cardiovascular systems.

internalization of negative assessments as well as stereotypes impacts on their psychological health as well as self-worth, consecutively increasing problems related to depression, alcohol use and psychological stress

ethnical discrimination may be evident in violence related to both physical as well as mental health end results

There is therefore a clear link between ethnical discrimination to depression and anxiety as the key contributors to the diseases burden among the Indigenous Australian. There are also apparent links between ethnicity and other mental health as well as behaviour problems with rising proofs of a link with poor physical health, such as cases of diabetes, obesity problems as well as high blood pressure. Many researchers have confirmed the link noted among various men as well and women, across different age cohorts and across different ethnical groups (keleher, 2006).

The link in this case, remains as one of the factors used to explain the poor mental health outcomes found among the Indigenous Australians, who are in most cases socially as well as economically disadvantaged. Both institutional and interpersonal forms of ethnic based discrimination play a significant contribution to poor health among the Indigenous Australians. Proofs have been analytically collected on how the pathway through communal, political, environmental as well as the economical determinants decode into ill health, and the way in which social environments as well as setting where people live does not only influence how they act, but also have a undeviating impact on their health(Keleher et.al.,2006).

Social Exclusion

Ethnicity coming in a way of social isolation creates depression and costs lives. The process of social isolation with regards to ethnicity and the scope of relative deprivation within the Australian society have had a great impact on the health of the Indigenous Australians at times leading to premature deaths. The risks to their health come not only as a result of material deprivation, but also through the social in addition to psychological problems associated with poverty as well as marginalization. Increasing income disparity in Australia and more so among the disadvantaged group like the Indigenous Australians make this a rising problem (Keleher et.al, 2006).

The consequences of this is that, the Indigenous Australians, subjected to social isolation and social exclusion become subject to deteriorating levels of personal control and high levels of loneliness and discontent. They therefore reveal an increased need to access mental health services and go through high stress levels as well as high mortality rates for all causes of death. They suffer more from depression, have no t benefit of wellbeing and are at high risk of pregnancy complications in the case of pregnant women.

Social exclusion through ethnicity comes as a result of marginality and inequity on the peoples’ opportunities to contribute to the society and lowers down their access to acquire opportunities so as to contribute to the society. These confine their access to various opportunities towards economic as well as social participation with vast economic and social penalties for those already living on very low incomes. Populations most commonly well-known as mainly at risk due to social exclusion entail those with inadequate job opportunities, predominantly black and the ethnic marginal groups.

Unemployment, Employment and Working Conditions

Ethnicity acts as a go-between employment opportunity. Unemployment as a result of ethnicity puts the Indigenous Australians’ health at risk with the risk of poor health being at a high level in regions where the unemployment level is more widespread. The health impacts as a result of unemployment levels of the Indigenous Australians are linked to the psychological consequences and the accompanying financial problems. Low pay, harsh as well as stressful work subjected to the Indigenous Australians has a great impact on their general health (Papadopoulos, 2006).

Negative stress at their places of work enhances the risk of ill health. However, it is not just the stress and the demanding work that is the main problem. It is the stress that come out in the form of having very little control and authority with regards to work affairs. All these are a consequences brought by ethnicity placed upon them as a disadvantaged group. Lack of appreciation as well as reward may also be another health burden. The reward or effort imbalance discriminating against them in ethnicity background acts as a significant determinant of their health. Stress comes when people sense their positions are under threat, not just being unemployed and this poses a significant impact on their health.

Early Life Connectedness to Ethnicity

Evidences with regards to the effects of past experiences as also had a significant impact on the health of the Indigenous Australians. Keleher (2006) says that this has been able to spark a rising consensus on the significance of early child growth as an influential health determinant in its own right. The impacts of the past physical as well as social environment on childhood growth last his or her whole life.

Lack of emotional support during early childhood leads to poor physical health as well as reducing the physical and emotional performance in adulthood. Poor social as well as economic situations thereafter present a major challenge to a child’s development and health condition. Low socio-economic status among the Indigenous Australians has been known to be related to development impediment, low school attainments and employment prospects, behavior problems, rising cases of persistent illness and dental facts.

Their health problems have therefore been attributed to a legacy of long time practices such as being thrown away from their lands, family separation, cultural dislocation as well as discrimination. Surveys conducted in 1994 by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) have shown that children who were forcibly removed from their families in childhood are twice as likely to assess their health status as poor as compared to those who were not removed.

The surveys also document the devastating impacts of the removal of both children of the Indigenous Australians from their families and the general impacts of fragmentation on the families today. Early years of an individuals’ life is therefore foundational to their health through their lives (Keleher, 2006).

Social Connectedness

Ethnicity has also impacted on the social connection of the Indigenous Australians. Friendship, healthy social relations as well as supportive networks are crucial to enhancing individuals’ health. Being part of a social responsibility makes individuals believe they are cared for as well as being valued. This translates to improved psychological health as well as enhanced physical health (Lupton, 1995).

Social capital which has been lacking in the case of the Indigenous Australians due to ethnical discrimination is linked social connectedness. Ethnical discrimination has for a long time denied this group the benefits that come along with social connectedness. This has led to lack of emotional support leading to poor psychological health among most Indigenous Australians (Keleher, 2006).

Conclusion

It is much difficult to separate the impacts of ethnicity towards the access of health care services on the general health of the Indigenous Australian population. Socio-economic aspects for instance housing, income and employment levels and the provision of non- healthcare government provisions such as hygienic water, nutrition, education and public housing each contribute to overall health outcomes.

The outcomes and efficiency of health care services are also influenced by population aspects different from the governments’ control, consisting of geographic distribution, ethnicity profiles, and socio-economic status (Fowler et.al., 2010).

Reference

Fowler, C.eta l( 2010). Addressing the Gap in Indigenous Health: Government Intervention or Community Governance. A qualitative review. The International Journal of Health Sociology. Retrieved on September 13 from

< HYPERLINK “http://hsr.e-contentmanagement.com/archives/vol/19/issue/1/article/3564/addressing-the-gap-in-indigenous-health” http://hsr.e-contentmanagement.com/archives/vol/19/issue/1/article/3564/addressing-the-gap-in-indigenous-health>

Keleher, H & St. John, W.(2006).Community Nursing Practice: Theory, Skills and Issues. Allen & Unwin.

Lupton, G.M& Najman, M. (1995). Sociology of Health and Illness. Palgrave Macmillan Australia.

Papadopoulos, I.( 2006). Transcultural Health and Social Care: Development of Culturally Competent Practitioners. Elsevier Health Sciences.

White, K. (2009). An Introduction to the Sociology of Health and Illness. SAGE :Publications Ltd.